POETRY

                      FATHER.

Father is a hero in our lives.
Dad always keeps and protects us wherever we are.
Dad is always patient in guiding and teaching us.

We know that sometimes we often fight, lie and never hear your words. and now we realize that what dads do is that dad is afraid of things that do not want to happen to us.

But you remain patient and never give up in guiding us.
Dad always works hard to earn money, to meet the needs of your children.

Father does not say much, father is more silent.
Dad always covered the problems that father faced.
we never tell you what the father's problem is.

But father always looks strong in front of us all.
Day by day my dad always asks how we are doing.
In fact we rarely ask about the state of father.
In fact we rarely ask dad have eaten what not yet.

Our father is proud to have a father like you.
We do not know how to reply to all of this.
Dad is just one of our dad's requests.

Pray for us father so we can be happy for you. Thank you father has been the best father for us. our father is banging like you. We all love you daddy

DRAMA

                   MEANING OF LIFE
DIALOG

Oky: A lot of messages! I'll pay later. Anyway you must eat to full.
Rudi: New payday huh? How really royal?

Oky: I do not have to ask a lot! Want to get a treat?

Dinda: Yes definitely want it! Today it's your turn out of money.

Not long afterwards dina came to the table where they sat. He just took his leave from the toilet to receive a call.

Dinda: Dina why? Why sad?

Andi: Yeah why, Din? Your wallet is gone?

Oky and Rudi laugh at Andi's jokes.

Dina: My mama just called. He said my papa went bankrupt. All the houses, cars and savings in the bank are exhausted. And we had to move to a slum dwelling. Worse all this bankruptcy because papa involved corruption case and now he became a fugitive police (Crying)

Oky: HAH? The correct one?!

Andi: So you're a fugitive boy ?!

Dinda: You're poor now, din?

Oky, Andi, Dinda and Rudi put on a tense face and looked down on her for crying to Dina.

Dina: I've got nothing now, but you guys still want my friends? We've been friends since three years ago.

Dinda pulled away the chair that had been near Dina's chair. He moved closer to the oky next to him.

Dinda: Yes, you know, Din is a group of wealthy young men. So, how could you possibly comply with our lifestyle?

Rudy: Mending you home and looking at the circumstances of your parents, Din.

Andi and Oky just looked coldly toward Dina. Dina stared at them with a very sad look.

Dina: I think our friendship for three years means. But if I am poor, you just leave!

Oky: Never mind, Din. Go home. That's right what Rudi said. I've had a great meal!

Dina stood up from her chair and then looked sadly at her four friends. Then he left them and came out of the cafe.

Andi: Crazy Dina, we were told to be her friend. While he is already poor. I'm not an appetite.

Oky: Same, yes already ask for a bill!

Suddenly Dinda, who had almost got to his car, ran up to Oky and Andi.

Dinda: Guys! Just now I can hear if there is a girl whose characteristics look like Dina was about to jump from fly over!

Andi: Seriously ?!

Dinda: Like this lie? Check out your handphone!

Oky and Rui checked their mobile phones and received the same news from broadcast messages.

oky: Let's go straight to the fly over! You are with us, Dindq! Contact Oky. tell him to go straight there.

Dinda, Andi and Oky get into the car. oky driving the car towards the fly over where Dina was about to commit suicide. Suddenly halfway through, Andi's phone rings and Andi's face becomes tense.

Andi: Guys .... We're late. Dina jumps from the fly over and she dies.

Oky immediately stopped the car. Dinda burst into tears in the backseat of the car.

Andi: We go straight to Blue Gem Hospital aja, Dina's body was brought there.

Oky took a deep breath and then drove to the hospital.

Arriving there, the three of them ran and in front of the body of the body had been mothers and rina, Dina's older brother sat silent.

Dinda ran to hug Rina

Dinda: Sister, forgive us. It's all our fault. If we give support to Dina, surely it will not be like this. But we just left it when he needed us.

rina replied to Dinda's hug and gently stroked Dinda's back. rina can not hold back her tears.

Rina: Never mind, we've forgiven you. This is all outlined by the Almighty. I'm just begging you to keep praying for Dina to keep her quiet there.

Oky and Andi look at Rina who is not angry with them and even forgive her.

Andi: We apologize profusely, sister. We must continue to pray for Dina.

Rina: No need to apologize continuously, Andi. Dina is just not strong enough to accept the fact that we all fall into poverty. I really understand because since childhood he lives with a wealth of money.

Oky, Andi and Dinda are amazed at Rina's greatness and since then they are determined to be more respectful to others and not to use money as a benchmark.

For download : Click Here

MEANING of LIFE

Figures:
Rudi
Oky
Dinda
Dina
Rina
Andi
     
a group of young girl from family very rich. never concerned with other people's feelings and always regard to the material all sundry. and at a time family of the Dina experience bankrupt. and when the family of the Dina poor, some friends Dina trying to get rid of the Dina arbitrarily since the Dina poor. and the Dina began depressed and plan to suicide because his parents bankrupt and his friend died right away his so only. Dinda and Andi as friend his often hurt Dina with their words. while Rina Rina as brother class Dina, encouraged to memaaf right them and it makes them aware of their mistakes made.

character:
Rudi   (Antagonis)
Oky    (Prontagonis)
Dinda (Antagonis)
Dina   (Tritagonis)
Rina   (Tritagonis)
Andi   (Tritagonis)

Setting:
    Place: cafe and school
    Time: morning and afternoon.

Menjadi Guru Profesional

Menjadi Guru Pembimbing

A Take home Asiggnment

Submintted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the subject Belajar dan Pembelajaran

Antonius Sianturi

(1688203068)

            Cara guru untuk memperbaiki Proses Pembelajaran dikelas dengan mencakup beberapa aspek berikut ini:

            Aplikasi teori behavioristik dalam kegiatan pembelajaran tergantung dari beberapa hal seperti: tujuan pembelajaran, sifat materi pelajaran, karakteristik pebelajar, media dan fasilitas pembelajaran yang tersedia.

             Model pembelajaran adalah satu perencanaan atau suatu pola yang digunakan sebagai pedoman dalam merencanakan pembelajaran di kelas atau pembelajaran dalam tutorial dan untuk menentukan perangkat-perangkat pembelajaran termasuk di dalamnya buku-buku, komputer, kurikulum, dan lain-lain. Dalam memperbaiki proses pembelajaran dengan model modifikasi tingkah laku (Behavioral). Model ini lebih menekankan pada aspek perubahan perilaku psikologis dan perlilaku yang tidak dapat diamanti karakteristik. Setelah Anda sudah mengaplikasikan model pembelajaran, Selanjutnya Anda ketahui pembelajaran terdapat dua jenis pendekatan, yaitu: 1. pendekatan pembelajaran yang berorientasi atau berpusat pada siswa (student centered approach) dan 2. pendekatan pembelajaran yang berorientasi atau berpusat pada guru (teacher centered approach). Setelah Anda melakukan pendekatan pembelajaran, Anda harus melakukan metode ceramah pada kelas dengan jumlah siswa yang relatif banyak membutuhkan teknik tersendiri, yang tentunya secara teknis akan berbeda dengan penggunaan metode ceramah pada kelas yang jumlah siswanya terbatas. Supaya siswa merespon Anda harus memiliki strategi, yaitu Strategi Penyampaian (Delivery Strategy)  merupakan cara untuk menyampaikan pembelajaran pada siswa atau untuk menerima serta merespon masukan dari siswa.

Guru sebagai pembimbing adalah proses pemberian bantuan terhadap individu untuk mencapai pemahaman dan pengarahan diri yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan penyesuaian diri secara maksimum terhadap sekolah, keluarga serta masyarakat.

            Selama proses belajar mengajar berlangsung sering kali murid mengganngu temannya yang lain dengan berbagai cara, suka berbuat usil kepada temannya, sehingga temannya tidak konsentrasi lagi terhadap apa yang disampaikan oleh guru. Guru harus mampu membaca suasana hati siswa ketika mengajar, kemudian menyesuaikan aktivitas pembelajaran dengan suasana hati siswa.

Menjadi Guru Profesional

Menjadi Guru Pembimbing

A Take home Asiggnment

Submintted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the subject Belajar dan Pembelajaran

Antonius Sianturi

(1688203068)

            Menjadi guru untuk memperbaiki Proses Pembelajaran dikelas dengan mencakup beberapa aspek berikut ini:

            Aplikasi teori behavioristik dalam kegiatan pembelajaran tergantung dari beberapa hal seperti: tujuan pembelajaran, sifat materi pelajaran, karakteristik pebelajar, media dan fasilitas pembelajaran yang tersedia.

             Model pembelajaran adalah satu perencanaan atau suatu pola yang digunakan sebagai pedoman dalam merencanakan pembelajaran di kelas atau pembelajaran dalam tutorial dan untuk menentukan perangkat-perangkat pembelajaran termasuk di dalamnya buku-buku, komputer, kurikulum, dan lain-lain. Dalam memperbaiki proses pembelajaran dengan model modifikasi tingkah laku (Behavioral). Model ini lebih menekankan pada aspek perubahan perilaku psikologis dan perlilaku yang tidak dapat diamanti karakteristik. Setelah Anda sudah mengaplikasikan model pembelajaran, Selanjutnya Anda ketahui pembelajaran terdapat dua jenis pendekatan, yaitu: 1. pendekatan pembelajaran yang berorientasi atau berpusat pada siswa (student centered approach) dan 2. pendekatan pembelajaran yang berorientasi atau berpusat pada guru (teacher centered approach). Setelah Anda melakukan pendekatan pembelajaran, Anda harus melakukan metode ceramah pada kelas dengan jumlah siswa yang relatif banyak membutuhkan teknik tersendiri, yang tentunya secara teknis akan berbeda dengan penggunaan metode ceramah pada kelas yang jumlah siswanya terbatas. Supaya siswa merespon Anda harus memiliki strategi, yaitu Strategi Penyampaian (Delivery Strategy)  merupakan cara untuk menyampaikan pembelajaran pada siswa atau untuk menerima serta merespon masukan dari siswa.

Guru sebagai pembimbing adalah proses pemberian bantuan terhadap individu untuk mencapai pemahaman dan pengarahan diri yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan penyesuaian diri secara maksimum terhadap sekolah, keluarga serta masyarakat.

            Selama proses belajar mengajar berlangsung sering kali murid mengganngu temannya yang lain dengan berbagai cara, suka berbuat usil kepada temannya, sehingga temannya tidak konsentrasi lagi terhadap apa yang disampaikan oleh guru. Guru harus mampu membaca suasana hati siswa ketika mengajar, kemudian menyesuaikan aktivitas pembelajaran dengan suasana hati siswa.

15 years into the future I became a successful entrepreneur.

15 years into the future I became a successful businessman. I want to be an entrepreneur, because I have talent to try. and also because motivated from my parents. I saw my parents trying to pay for my college. vigorously. so when I succeed. I will repay my parents' services. and after my success, later I want to also share the fortune for children who need it.

Antonius Sianturi

Hai.. nama saya Antonius Sianturi.
Saya kuliah di Universitas Lancang Kuning PekanBaru. Saya mendapat tugas dari dosen saya untuk menulis tentang diri saya di bloger saya.
Saya anak ke 3 dari 3 bersaudara. Saya mempunyai satu orang kakak dan satu orang abang. Saya anak terakhir. Bisa di bilang anak bungsu. Saya orang nya periang dan mudah tersinggung. Saya kuliah mengambil jurusan FKIP Prodi bahasa inggri. Pertama saya masuk kuliah, saya masih binggung ketika dosen mengajar menggunakan bahasa inggris. Seiring jalan nya waktu saya mulai mengerti sedikit demi sedikit apa arti yang d bicarakan doesn saya. Walaupun belum sepenuhnya saya mengerti. Maklum lah saya jarang menggunakan bahasa inggris dan jarang belajar. After I entered the world of lectures I began to get many friends from various regions. And I got a lot of experience. Here I am many friends who wander to get a science. And from them I am motivated. Here they live independently. I am very motivated with them. Maybe this is all I can tell you.

Bude Kasih

            Bude kasih adalah seorang wanita tua yang bekerja d fkip unilak. Bude Kasih mempunyai anak 4. Semua anak bude Kasih sudah tamat kuliah. Ke 4 anak nya ini bude Kasih yang membiayainya. Bude Kasih adalah seorang janda ang di tinggali suaminya( meninggal dunia). walaupun seorang dia seorang janda bude Kasih tetap semangat dalam menajalani kesahariannya. Pekerjaan bude Kasih di FKIP UNILAK sebagai tukang bersih bersih. Walaupun dia seorang perempuan dia tetap semangat dalam melakukan aktivitasnya.

            Hari demi hari berganti bude kasih mengerjakan pekerjaan yang harus di kerjakan setiap hari untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidupnya  walaupun sudah tua bude kasih tetap semangat mengerjakan pekerjaan nya. Bude Kasihsangat ramah kepada semua orang yang ada di FKIP UNILAK. Melihat semangat kerjanya bude Kasih ini sangat luar biasa. Walaupun bude Kasih seorang janda dan  tak pernah di pandang orang. Bude Kasih tetap semangat dalam melakukan aktivitas kesehariannya.

            without Bude Kasih, environment fkip unilak will dirty (not clean). but what? Bude Kasih that only a widow it remains the spirit to take care of, maintain, cleaning environments fkip unilak. should all you defeated that is in fkip unilak have to appreciate Bude Kasih. because without Bude Kasih student / I can not learn safe and comfortable. However Bude Kasih never, not doing the work of his

Motivasi Belajar

Kesimpulan nya kita harus sering memotivasi anak anak supaya semangat belajar anak tinggi. Agar anak anak dapat meraih cita cita dan impiannya.

Prinsip Prinsip Belajar

Kesimpulan dalam prinsip prinsip belajar: dalam belajar kita dapat menggunakan teknik, metode, dan media untuk dapat mengerti apa yang kita pelajari. Dan dengan bantuan teman atau guru yang dapat membuat kita cepat mengerti.

Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical or educational schools of thought, due mainly to their location in departments other than applied sciences (e.g., cohesive data on how the human brain functioned). Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, and information science to study how the brain processes language, and less so the known processes of social sciences, human development, communication theories and infant development, among others. There are a number of subdisciplines with non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain; for example, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own right.

Psycholinguistics has roots in education and philosophy, and covers the "cognitive processes" that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn language

Origin of the term[edit]

The term psycholinguistics was coined in 1936 by Jacob Robert Kantor in his book An Objective Psychology of Grammar and started being used among his team at Indiana University, but its use finally became frequent thanks to the 1946 article "Language and psycholinguistics: a review", by his student Nicholas Henry Pronko,^[1] where it was used for the first time to talk about an interdisciplinary science "that could be coherent",^[2] as well as in the title of Psycholinguistics: A Survey of Theory and Research Problems, a 1954 book by Charles E. Osgood and Thomas A. Sebeok.^[3]

Areas of study[

Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary field. Hence, it is studied by researchers from a variety of different backgrounds, such as psychology, cognitive science, linguistics, andspeech and language pathology. Psycholinguists study many different topics, but these topics can generally be divided into answering the following questions: (1) how do children acquire language (language acquisition)?; (2) how do people process and comprehend language (language comprehension)?; (3) how do people produce language (language production)?; and (4) how do people acquire a new language (second language acquisition)?

Subdivisions in psycholinguistics are also made based on the different components that make up human language.

Linguistics-related areas:

·         Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech sounds. Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these sounds.

·         Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation).

·         Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined to form sentences.

·         Semantics deals with the meaning of words and sentences. Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of sentences.

·         Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of meaning.

A researcher interested in language comprehension may study word recognition during reading to examine the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic,morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed text. A researcher interested in language production might study how words are prepared to be spoken starting from the conceptual or semantic level. Developmental psycholinguists study infants' and children's ability to learn and process language.^[4]

Theories[edit]

In this section, some influential theories are discussed for each of the fundamental questions listed in the section above.

Language acquisition[edit]

Main article: Language acquisition

There are essentially two schools of thought as to how children acquire or learn language, and there is still much debate as to which theory is the correct one. The first theory states that all language must be learned by the child. The second view states that the abstract system of language cannot be learned, but that humans possess an innate language faculty, or an access to what has been called universal grammar. The view that language must be learned was especially popular before 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf Carnap. Likewise, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by B.F. Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is a behavior shaped by conditioned response, hence it is learned.

The innatist perspective began with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959.^[5] This review helped to start what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in psychology. Chomsky posited humans possess a special, innate ability for language and that complex syntactic features, such as recursion, are "hard-wired" in the brain. These abilities are thought to be beyond the grasp of the most intelligent and social non-humans. According to Chomsky, children acquiring a language have a vast search space to explore among all possible human grammars, yet at the time there was no evidence that children receive sufficient input to learn all the rules of their language (see poverty of the stimulus). Hence, there must be some other innate mechanism that endows a language ability to humans. Such a language faculty is, according to the innateness hypothesis, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal communication.

The field of linguistics and psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and con. The pro view still holds that the human ability to use language (specifically the ability to use recursion) is qualitatively different from any sort of animal ability.^[6] This ability may have resulted from a favorable mutation or from an adaptation of skills evolved for other purposes. The view that language can be learned has had a recent resurgence inspired by emergentism. This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested. With the amount of computer power increasing since the 1980s, researchers have been able to simulate language acquisition using neural network models.^[7] These models provide evidence that there may, in fact, be sufficient information contained in the input to learn language, even syntax. If this is true, then an innate mechanism is no longer necessary to explain language acquisition.

Language comprehension[edit]

Main article: Language comprehension

One question in the realm of language comprehension is how people understand sentences as they read (also known as sentence processing). Experimental research has spawned a number of theories about the architecture and mechanisms of sentence comprehension. Typically these theories are concerned with what types of information contained in the sentence the reader can use to build meaning, and at what point in reading does that information become available to the reader. Issues such as "modular" versus "interactive" processing have been theoretical divides in the field.

A modular view of sentence processing assumes that the stages involved in reading a sentence function independently in separate modules. These modulates have limited interaction with one another. For example, one influential theory of sentence processing, the garden-path theory,^[8] states that syntactic analysis takes place first. Under this theory as the reader is reading a sentence, he or she creates the simplest structure possible in order to minimize effort and cognitive load. This is done without any input from semantic analysis or context-dependent information. Hence, in the sentence "The evidence examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable," by the time the reader gets to the word "examined" he or she has committed to a reading of the sentence in which the evidence is examining something because it is the simplest parse. This commitment is made despite the fact that it results in an implausible situation; we know from experience that evidence can rarely if ever examine something. Under this "syntax first" theory, semantic information is processed at a later stage. It is only later that the reader will recognize that he or she needs to revise the initial parse into one in which "the evidence" is being examined. In this example, readers typically recognize their misparse by the time they reach "by the lawyer" and must go back and re-parse the sentence.^[9] This reanalysis is costly and contributes to slower reading times.

In contrast to a modular account, an interactive theory of sentence processing, such as a constraint-based lexical approach^[10] assumes that all available information contained within a sentence can be processed at any time. Under an interactive account, for example, the semantics of a sentence (such as plausibility) can come into play early on in order to help determine the structure of a sentence. Hence, in the sentence above, the reader would be able to make use of plausibility information in order to assume that "the evidence" is being examined instead of doing the examining. There are data to support both modular and interactive accounts; which account is the correct one is still up for debate.

Language production[edit]

Main article: Language production

Language production concerns how people produce language, either in written or spoken form, in a way that conveys meanings comprehensible to others. One of the most effective ways to explain the way people represent meanings using rule-governed languages is by observing and analyzing instances of speech errors. They include speech dysfluencies like false starts, repetition, reformulation and constant pauses in between words or sentences; also, slips of tongue, like blendings, substitutions, exchanges (e.g.Spoonerism), and various pronunciation errors. These speech errors yield significant implication on language production, in that they reflect that:

1.   Speech is planned in advance: speech errors like substitution and exchanges show that one does not plan his/her entire sentence before s/he speaks. Rather, their language faculty is constantly tapped during the speech production process. This is accounted for by the limitation of the working memory. In particular, errors involving exchanges imply that one plans ahead in their sentence but only about significant ideas (e.g. the words that constitute the core meaning) and only to a certain extent of the sentence.

2.   Lexicon is organized semantically and phonologically: substitution and pronunciation errors show that lexicon is organized not only by its meaning, but also its form.

3.   Morphologically complex words are assembled: errors involving blending within a word reflect that there seems to be a rule governing the construction of words in production (and also likely in mental lexicon). In other words, speakers generate the morphologically complex words by merging morphemes rather than retrieving them as chunks.

For models of speech production, see Psycholinguistics/Models of Speech Production.

Methodologies[edit]

Behavioral tasks[edit]

Many of the experiments conducted in psycholinguistics, especially earlier on, are behavioral in nature. In these types of studies, subjects are presented with linguistic stimuli and asked to perform an action. For example, they may be asked to make a judgment about a word (lexical decision), reproduce the stimulus, or name a visually presented word aloud. Reaction times to respond to the stimuli (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of performance in behavioral tasks. Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word later.^[11]

As an example of how behavioral methods can be used in psycholinguistics research, Fischler (1977) investigated word encoding using the lexical decision task. He asked participants to make decisions about whether two strings of letters were English words. Sometimes the strings would be actual English words requiring a "yes" response, and other times they would be nonwords requiring a "no" response. A subset of the licit words were related semantically (e.g., cat-dog) while others were unrelated (e.g., bread-stem). Fischler found that related word pairs were responded to faster when compared to unrelated word pairs. This facilitation suggests that semantic relatedness can facilitate word encoding.^[12]

Eye-movements[edit]

Recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language processing. Beginning with Rayner (1978)^[13] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was established. Later, Tanenhaus et al. (1995)^[14] used the visual-world paradigm to study the cognitive processes related to spoken language. Assuming that eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented auditorily with linguistic input.

Language production errors[edit]

Main article: Speech error

The analysis of systematic errors in speech, writing and typing of language as it is produced can provide evidence of the process which has generated it. Errors of speech, in particular, grant insight into how the mind processes language production while a speaker is in the midst of an utterance. Speech errors tend to occur in the lexical, morpheme, and phoneme encoding steps of language production, as seen by the ways errors can manifest.^[15] The types of speech errors, and some examples, are:^[15][16][17]

·         Substitutions (phoneme and lexical) – replacing a sound with an unrelated sound, or a word with an antonym, and saying "verbal outfit" instead of "verbal output", or "He rode his bike tomorrow" instead of "...yesterday", respectively,

·         Blends – mixing two synonyms together and saying "my stummy hurts" in place of either "stomach" or "tummy",

·         Exchanges (phoneme [a.k.a. Spoonerisms] and morpheme) – swapping two onset sounds or two root words, and saying "You hissed my mystery lectures" instead of "You missed my history lectures", or "They're Turking talkish" instead of "They're talking Turkish", respectively,

·         Morpheme shifts – moving a function morpheme such as "-ly" or "-ed" to a different word and saying "easy enoughly" instead of "easily enough",

·         Perseveration – continuing to start a word with a sound that was in the utterance previously and saying "John gave the goy a ball" instead of "John gave the boy a ball", and

·         Anticipation – replacing a sound with one that is coming up later in the utterance and saying "She drank a cot cup of tea" instead of "She drank a hot cup of tea."

Speech errors will usually occur in the stages that involve lexical, morpheme, or phoneme encoding, and usually not the first step of semantic encoding.^[18] This can be credited to how a speaker is still conjuring the idea of what to say, and unless he changes his mind, can not be mistaken in what he wanted to say.

Neuroimaging[edit]

Main article: Neurolinguistics

Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the brain. For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of epilepsy. Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic surgery. Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their research.

Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy). Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in psycholinguistics.

Computational modeling[edit]

Computational modeling, such as the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Max Coltheart and colleagues,^[19] is another methodology and refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer programs. Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis unreliable. Another example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech perception.^[20]

Issues and areas of research[edit]

Psycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce language. For example, the cohort modelseeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic input.^[11][21]

Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the brain.

There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human language.

Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language acquisition. In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily). Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned readily.^[22] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over time. It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn more.^[23]

The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain damage. Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes language.